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9 - Morphology, morphometrics and taxonomy
- Edited by Joanna M. Setchell, University of Durham, Deborah J. Curtis, Oxford Brookes University
-
- Book:
- Field and Laboratory Methods in Primatology
- Published online:
- 05 June 2012
- Print publication:
- 03 February 2011, pp 169-188
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Summary
INTRODUCTION
Fieldworkers are often unaware of the value of making accurate records of their study animals' morphology. External morphology includes measurements, observations of glandular activity and detailed description of the pelage; internal morphology may include skull and postcranial measurements, recording of suture closure, epiphyseal fusion, dental eruption and wear, and observations on the gut. All these observations will yield information on taxonomy, age–sex class (Table 9.1), reproductive status, individual variation, growth, development, sexual dimorphism and so on. It may also be interesting to look at individuals' behaviour in the light of their external differences: does facial coloration correlate with behaviour in mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx), does flange development correlate with behaviour in orangutans (Pongo spp.), and so on?
Measurements may be made either on dead specimens, or on living animals when they are captured (Chapter 7) and, preferably, anaesthetized (Chapter 8). Valuable descriptive information, other than measurements, can be gathered from simple observations, or from photographs (Chapter 17). On occasion, measurements can even be made in this way. For example, Markham and Groves (1990) cite a personal communication from Herman Rijksen of how he weighed four wild orangutans (worth repeating here because it is such a wonderful example of lateral thinking) ‘… by “measuring” the bending arc of particular branches when supporting the full weight of the animal and hoisting up buckets of sand to match the same arc’.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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OH emission and absorption associated with supernovae in Arp 220
- Colin J. Lonsdale, Katherine R. de Kleer, Philip J. Diamond, Hannah Thrall, Carol J. Lonsdale, Harding E. Smith
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- Journal:
- Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union / Volume 3 / Issue S242 / March 2007
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 March 2007, pp. 432-436
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- March 2007
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We present parsec-resolution spectral-line VLBI data for two epochs separated by 15 months as a precise new probe of the innermost regions of the nearby Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxy (ULIRG) Arp 220. This galaxy hosts a powerful starburst, with an associated supernova (SN) rate of order 4/yr. An extensive population of compact continuum sources interpreted as radio supernovae (RSNe) and young supernova remnants (SNR) has been imaged. We show here that many of the supernova-related radio continuum point sources exhibit clear evidence of OH absorption or maser emission in the intervening gas, and as such provide us with a sampling of conditions along very narrow and specific lines of sight through the nuclear environment. The OH gas along these lines of sight exhibits velocity dispersions of up to several tens of km/sec, and that in some cases, multiple distinct concentrations of masing gas at different radial velocities can be discerned. There is evidence for variability in the OH properties on ~1yr timescales. Our results are discussed in the context of the overall OH megamaser properties of Arp 220.
A Theoretical Study of Ultra-Thin Films with the Wurtzite and Zinc Blende Structures
- Frederik Claeyssens, Colin L. Freeman, John H. Harding, Neil L. Allan
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- Journal:
- MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive / Volume 1035 / 2007
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 February 2011, 1035-L09-08
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- 2007
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Results of periodic ab initio density functional theory calculations on thin films of (i) wurtzite ZnO (hexagonal) which terminate with the non-polar (1010) surface, and with the polar (0001) and (0001) surfaces (ii) zinc blende (cubic) ZnO which terminate with the non-polar (110) and with the polar (111) surfaces. Thin (less than18 layer) films of wurtzite ZnO which terminate with the polar (0001) and (0001) surfaces are found to be higher in energy than corresponding films in which these polar surfaces flatten out forming a new planar ‘graphitic’-like structure in which the Zn and O atoms are coplanar and the dipole is removed. This is the lowest energy surface for ultra-thin films. For zinc-blende ZnO a graphitic-type solution, but with a different stacking of ZnO layers, is also comparable to energy to the non-polar (110) and polar (111) solutions. Consequences for crystal growth and the stabilization of thin films and nanostructures are discussed.
9 - Morphology, morphometrics and taxonomy
-
- By Colin Groves, Australian National University, Joanne Harding, Australian National University
- Edited by Joanna M. Setchell, University of Surrey, Roehampton, Deborah J. Curtis, University of Surrey, Roehampton
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- Field and Laboratory Methods in Primatology
- Published online:
- 05 June 2012
- Print publication:
- 18 September 2003, pp 140-157
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Summary
INTRODUCTION
Fieldworkers are often unaware of the value of making accurate records of their study animals' morphology. External morphology includes measurements, observations of glandular activity and detailed description of the pelage; internal morphology may include skull and postcranial measurements, recording of suture closure, epiphyseal fusion, dental eruption and wear, and observations on the gut. All these observations will yield information on taxonomy, age–sex class (Table 9.1), reproductive status, individual variation, growth, development, sexual dimorphism and so on. It may also be interesting to look at individuals' behaviour in the light of their external differences: does facial coloration correlate with behaviour in mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx), does flange development correlate with behaviour in orang-utans (Pongo spp.), and so on?
Measurements may be made either on dead specimens, or on living animals when they are captured (Chapter 7) and, preferably, anaesthetised (Chapter 8). Valuable descriptive information, other than measurements, can be gathered from simple observations, or from photographs (Chapter 16). On occasion, measurements can even be made in this way. For example, Markham & Groves (1990) cite a personal communication from Herman Rijksen of how he weighed four wild orang-utans (worth repeating here because it is such a wonderful example of lateral thinking) ‘by “measuring” the bending arc of particular branches when supporting the full weight of the animal and hoisting up buckets of sand to match the same arc’.
The Time Evolution of the Radio Supernovae in Arp 220
- Colin J. Lonsdale, Philip J. Diamond, Carol J. Lonsdale, Harding E. Smith
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- Journal:
- Symposium - International Astronomical Union / Volume 205 / 2001
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 13 May 2016, pp. 386-389
- Print publication:
- 2001
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Since our unexpected discovery of 12 compact radio sources in one of the nuclei of Arp220 we have been monitoring the structure using global VLBI and the VLBA. With several epochs of data we can now demonstrate that the fluxes of the radio sources are, in general, decreasing sytematically but not smoothly. The sources also have steep spectra. Both facts support our earlier supposition that these are highly luminous radio supernovae. We initially predicted a radio supernova rate of approximately 2yr−1 Our most recent observations indicate that the occurrence rate of luminous RSN is several times lower than predicted, thus our model of the Arp220 starburst must be revised.
VLBI Imaging of Luminous Infrared Galaxies: Starbursts & AGN
- Harding E. Smith, Carol J. Lonsdale, Colin J. Lonsdale, Philip J. Diamond
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- Journal:
- Symposium - International Astronomical Union / Volume 194 / 1999
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 25 May 2016, pp. 60-65
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- 1999
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Luminous Infrared Galaxies (LIGs) are locally more numerous than normal galaxies, AGN, and QSOs above L ˜ 1011L⊙ and may be the evolutionary precursors of classical radio-quiet quasars. VLBI observations of a complete sample show that high-Tb radio cores are common, perhaps universal among LIGs. VLBI imaging shows that these radio cores may be produced by intense starbursts which generate luminous radio supernovae, as in the case of Arp 220 (Smith et al. 1998), or by a classical AGN core, as in the case of Mrk 231, which we interpret as a newly formed QSO emerging from a starburst. Compact OH 1667MHz maser emission appears to be common in LIGs and may be related to AGN activity. These results lend further support to the scenario suggested by Sanders et al (1988) in which mergers of gas-rich galaxies lead first to luminous starbursts which evolve into radio-quiet quasars.
1 - Introduction: patterns of agrarian capitalism in Latin America
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
- In collaboration with Colin Harding
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- Land and Labour in Latin America
- Published online:
- 07 May 2010
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- 02 February 1978, pp 1-20
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Summary
The development of capitalist agriculture has had a wide variety of effects upon pre-existing agrarian societies in Latin America. The forms it has assumed have in part been determined by variations in such factors as climate, ecology, demographic structure and history, ethnic patterns, and land tenure. The central theme of this volume is that such variations, whilst important in explaining localized phenomena, should essentially be seen as aspects of a basic process of change from one mode of production to another in the rural sector.
This is not of course a new idea, and indeed a number of writers, especially in the fields of economic history and social anthropology, have already dealt with many of the questions of particular relevance to the theme of this volume. Broadly speaking, their various approaches can be divided into three different levels of generalization. First, there are those works principally concerned with identifying the general mode of production in contemporary Latin American agriculture, in which the argument has centred around the question of whether the social organization of agriculture is essentially feudal or capitalist. Secondly, there is a more limited amount of theoretical discussion relating to the different types of agricultural enterprise to be found in Latin America, in which the principal distinction is drawn between the hacienda and the plantation. Finally, there is a very considerable body of literature dealing with types of peasantry and rural labour, where discussion concentrates upon the role-structure of rural economic life.
List of maps
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
- In collaboration with Colin Harding
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- Land and Labour in Latin America
- Published online:
- 07 May 2010
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- 02 February 1978, pp xii-xii
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PART I - THE TRANSITION FROM TRADITIONAL HACIENDA TO CAPITALIST ESTATE
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
- In collaboration with Colin Harding
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- Land and Labour in Latin America
- Published online:
- 07 May 2010
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- 02 February 1978, pp 21-22
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Summary
David Brading's paper constitutes the essential introduction to Part I, since it provides a useful point of departure for examining the development of the hacienda system. The haciendas of the Bajio of Mexico exemplify the economic and social difficulties encountered by pre-capitalist cereal agriculture – low profitability, unstable market conditions, and above all an underlying tension between the demands of demesne cultivation and the encroachments of tenant fanning. Indeed, in the particular case studied by Brading it seems that the landowning class had practically lost this struggle even before the great Mexican agrarian revolution of 1910–17. Jan Bazant's paper takes a similar starting point, showing the conflict between large landowners and the various categories of tenant labour settled on the periphery of their estates. However, in the haciendas of San Luis Potosí, unlike the Bajío, during the latter part of the nineteenth century the landowners were relatively successful in gradually restricting the rights of their tenants and successfully converting their peones into an increasingly impoverished class of day-wage labourers, stripped of the meagre privileges and security of the pre-capitalist agrarian society.
Arnold Bauer and Ann Hagerman Johnson deal in considerable detail with the changes in land tenure and land use during the period of expanding cereal agriculture in Chile. They show that the extension of cultivation took place mainly within the boundaries of existing estates through the conversion of previously unused land, and that there was in fact little or no change in the actual pattern of land ownership. (A similar point is made by Juan Martinez Alier in his paper on the Peruvian highlands.)
Notes on contributors
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
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- Land and Labour in Latin America
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- 02 February 1978, pp 503-506
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Glossary of Spanish and Portuguese terms used in the text
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
- In collaboration with Colin Harding
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- Land and Labour in Latin America
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- 02 February 1978, pp 490-501
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Contents
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
- In collaboration with Colin Harding
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- Land and Labour in Latin America
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- 02 February 1978, pp v-vii
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Authors
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
- In collaboration with Colin Harding
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- Land and Labour in Latin America
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- 02 February 1978, pp 530-535
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Weights and measures
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PART II - THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PLANTATION ECONOMY WITH LABOUR RECRUITMENT FROM HIGHLAND PEASANT COMMUNITIES
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
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Summary
The establishment of new labour-intensive plantation systems in tropical lowland or piedmont areas, where the supply of local labour was insufficient to meet the increased demand, led to a search for new sources of labour, especially seasonal labour, and in many cases this resulted in the recruitment of Indian or mestizo peasants from the adjacent highland areas. In the case studied by Ian Rutledge, varying degrees of direct coercion were involved in the process of labour mobilization.
Ultimately, the increased susceptibility of the Indian agricultural labourer to a system of material incentives, combined with demographic growth in the highlands, made the early modes of labour organization irrelevant to the needs and conditions of the time. The process of agrarian change (as exemplified by the replacement of debt peonage by a national system of mandamiento) and the reluctance of the planter oligarchy to allow the emergence of free wage labour and a pure plantation proletariat are eloquent indices of the economic and political distortions induced by the dominance of a system of plantation monoculture, developed under conditions of dependent capitalism.
Rutledge's paper also deals with the general theoretical question of the relationship between the expansion of capitalist forms of agricultural production and pre-capitalist modes of labour recruitment, but the particular form of labour coercion described in this paper owed more to a deliberate policy of land monopolization in the highlands than to direct coercion by the state. However, given the immense power of the provincial oligarchy in the region studied by Rutledge, the line between direct and indirect coercion of labour (i.e. the distinction between the use of political and economic measures) is a difficult one to draw.
PART III - THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE USING EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT LABOUR
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
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Summary
In so far as its starting point for the analysis of the process of agrarian change is the demise of the slave plantation system, Thomas H. Holloway's essay on labour organization in the Brazilian coffee industry provides certain points of contact with the papers included in Part IV. However, in this particular case the social and economic changes resulting from the large-scale immigration of European labour were so massive and far-reaching that they render any discussion of the changing status of the slaves themselves of minimal interest compared with the examples studied in the final section. Whereas-in the case of northeast Brazil's sugar cane industry an uncertain future for the commodity's markets meant that the decline and abolition of slavery was not accompanied by a relative shortage of labour (see the papers by Peter L. Eisenberg and Jaime Reis in Part IV), in the Sao Paulo region the decline of slavery occurred precisely at the time when great new opportunities were opening up for the cultivation and export of coffee. The coffee planters could never have taken full advantage of these new possibilities if they had tried to rely on local Negro labour; it is doubtful if even inter-regional transfers of ex-slaves would have supplied the quantity of manpower required. Instead, by encouraging the immigration of vast numbers of European labourers (mainly Italians) they totally transformed the social structure of the state of Sao Paulo.
List of figures
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
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Land and Labour in Latin America
- Essays on the Development of Agrarian Capitalism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
- Edited by Kenneth Duncan, Ian Rutledge
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There has been considerable controversy amongst social and economic historians, anthropologists, economists, sociologists, political scientists and other specialists concerning the nature and structure of Latin American agrarian society. An increasing number of studies have come to challenge the traditionally accepted view that the backwardness of rural Latin America and its resistance to 'modernisation' are due to the persistence of feudal or non-feudal forms of social and economic organisation. Instead attention has shifted to an examination of the social and economic dislocations resulting from attempts to impose capitalist forms of agrarian enterprise on peasant or pre-capitalist societies. This book of essays by an international group of scholars represents a substantial empirical contribution to the ongoing debate. This book will be of interest not only to specialists in the field, but also to anyone wishing to understand the historical processes underlying contemporary Latin America's complex land tenure and rural employment problems.
PART IV - THE TRANSITION FROM SLAVE PLANTATION TO CAPITALIST PLANTATION
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Summary
The decline and eventual abolition of slavery in northeast Brazil and the subsequent technological changes in the sugar industry are discussed by Jaime Reis and Peter Eisenberg in the first two papers of this section. Both make clear the extent to which almost all the agricultural land in this region was controlled by the planter oligarchy, thereby leaving the ex-slaves and other classes of free labourers few opportunities to escape from work on the plantations, which remained virtually their only source of income and employment. Moreover, ecological conditions discouraged the ex-slaves from migrating in large numbers away from the coastal sugar zone into the interior, for the arid backlands of the sertao already carried a surplus population which, unable to eke out more than bare living from the region's meagre and uncertain resources, was itself actually seeking to migrate (albeit seasonally) towards the sugar cane areas. Eisenberg's paper contains a broad general analysis of the economic factors affecting the Brazilian sugar industry in this period of crisis and change, and some useful comparisons are made with the Cuban sugar cane industry. In contrast, Reis's paper presents a more detailed study of the social relations of production within the changing plantation system, with particular reference to the slow but steady transition from the use of slaves to moradores as the major source of agricultural labour.
Whereas in northeast Brazil the process of agrarian change seems to have been relatively smooth and untraumatic (at least from the point of view of the landowners), Michael Taussig shows that in the Cauca Valley of Colombia the elimination of Negro slavery initially resulted in a very considerable degree of economic and social disruption in the plantation system.